Federal System

1.Introduction

• Unitary and Federal GovernmentsImportance 4/5
  On what basis are governments classified as unitary or federal? Understand how power is held in each type, and remember a few countries that follow each model. Also know the other names used for the national and regional governments in a federation.
• Federal versus Unitary Government: Features ComparedImportance 4/5UPSC 2021
  How does a federal government differ from a unitary one on these seven points: number of governments, written constitution, division of powers, supremacy of the constitution, rigidity, independent judiciary and a two-house legislature? For the unitary side, remember the country examples (for instance, which unitary country has an unwritten or flexible constitution).
• Meaning of the Term 'Federation'Importance 3/5
  Which Latin word does 'federation' come from, and what does that word mean? Remember what the units of a federation are called in the USA, Switzerland and Canada.
• Federation by Integration and by DisintegrationImportance 4/5
  What are the two ways in which a federation can be formed? Understand the difference, using the USA and Canada as examples. Canada's place in this pair is a commonly used classification, not settled fact. Remember the year each of these two federations was formed (for the USA, the year its Constitution was framed), which is the oldest federation in the world, and how many states or provinces each began with and has now.
• Why the Framers Adopted a Federal SystemImportance 3/5
  Why did the framers choose a federal system for India? Remember the two main reasons, and understand how a federal system helps keep the nation united while giving the regions autonomy.
• 'Union of States' Instead of 'Federation'Importance 5/5UPSC 2017
  The word 'federation' is not used anywhere in the Constitution. Why does Article 1 call India a 'Union of States' instead? You should be able to explain Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's two reasons for this choice, and why he called the Indian federation indestructible.
• Canadian Model of Indian FederalismImportance 4/5
  How does the Canadian model of federation differ from the American model? Know the three ways in which Indian federalism resembles the Canadian federation (in how it is commonly said to have been formed, the name it prefers, and the balance of power between the Centre and the units).

2.Federal Features of the Constitution

• Dual PolityImportance 4/5UPSC 2005
  What does dual polity mean? Understand where the Union and the states get their powers from, and remember examples of matters of national importance and of regional or local importance.
• Written ConstitutionImportance 3/5
  Why is a written constitution counted as a federal feature, and how does it help avoid disputes between the Centre and the states? Know where the Indian Constitution stands in length among the world's constitutions. Remember how many Articles, Parts and Schedules it had originally and about how many it has now.
• Division of PowersImportance 5/5UPSC 2017
  Which Schedule divides powers between the Centre and the states through three Lists, and how many subjects does each List have now and originally? If a Central law and a state law on a Concurrent List subject conflict, which one prevails? Also be clear about what residuary subjects are and who holds them.
• Supremacy of the ConstitutionImportance 3/5
  What does it mean for the Constitution to be the supreme law of the land? Understand how judicial review by the Supreme Court and the high courts keeps the Centre and the states within their limits.
• Rigid ConstitutionImportance 4/5
  Why does a federation need a rigid method of amendment to protect the division of powers? Know which provisions need the approval of the states to be amended, the kind of majority Parliament needs for them, and how many state legislatures must agree.
• Independent JudiciaryImportance 4/5UPSC 2017, 2021
  For what two purposes does the Constitution set up an independent judiciary headed by the Supreme Court? Remember the measures that keep judges independent of the government.
• BicameralismImportance 3/5
  Whom do the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha each represent? Understand why the Rajya Sabha is expected to protect the interests of the states against the Centre, even though it is the less powerful House.

3.Unitary Features of the Constitution

• Strong CentreImportance 4/5
  In what four ways does the division of powers favour the Centre? Compare where residuary powers lie in India and in the USA.
• States Not IndestructibleImportance 5/5
  Can Parliament change the area, boundaries or name of a state without the state's consent, and what kind of majority does it need? Must the state legislature be consulted first, and do its views bind Parliament? Understand the difference between 'an indestructible Union of destructible states' and 'an indestructible Union of indestructible states', and which federation each phrase describes.
• Single ConstitutionImportance 3/5
  Do the states in India have their own constitutions, as states in many federations do? Which state was the one past exception, and under which Article did it have special status until 2019?
• Flexibility of the ConstitutionImportance 3/5
  How much of the Constitution can Parliament amend by itself, and by what kinds of majority? Know who can start an amendment in India, and how this differs in the USA.
• No Equality of State RepresentationImportance 4/5UPSC 2017
  On what basis are states given seats in the Rajya Sabha, and how much does the number of seats vary between states? Compare this with the US Senate (its size and seats per state), and understand why equal representation is seen as a safeguard for smaller states.
• Emergency ProvisionsImportance 4/5
  What are the three types of emergency in the Constitution? Understand how the balance between the Centre and the states changes during an emergency, and whether the Constitution has to be amended for this change.
• Single CitizenshipImportance 4/5
  India has a dual polity but only one citizenship. Understand what single citizenship means for a citizen's rights in different states. Know which other federation India shares this system with, and how it differs from the dual citizenship of the USA.
• Integrated JudiciaryImportance 3/5
  Understand India's single system of courts, from the Supreme Court down to the state high courts, and which laws it enforces. How does this differ from the double system of courts in the USA?
• All-India ServicesImportance 4/5
  Which are the all-India services, and who recruits, trains and controls their members? You should be able to explain why these services are seen as going against the principle of federalism.
• Integrated Audit MachineryImportance 3/5
  Whose accounts does the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India audit, and how is this officer appointed and removed? Do the states have any role in either? Understand how this affects the financial autonomy of the states, and how the role of the American Comptroller-General differs.
• Parliament's Authority Over State ListImportance 4/5
  When can Parliament make laws on a subject in the State List? Know the role of a Rajya Sabha resolution passed in the national interest: the majority it needs, how long it stays in force, and how long laws made under it last. Does this need an emergency or a constitutional amendment?
• Appointment of GovernorImportance 4/5
  Who appoints the Governor, and how long is the Governor's term? Understand what it means that the Governor holds office during the President's pleasure, how the Centre controls the states through the Governor, and how this compares with the state heads in the USA and the Canadian system.
• Integrated Election MachineryImportance 2/5
  Which body conducts elections to both Parliament and the state legislatures? Know whether the states have any say in setting it up or removing its members, and how the USA arranges elections at the federal and state levels.
• Veto Over State BillsImportance 4/5
  Know what it means for the Governor to reserve a state bill for the President. Can the President withhold assent to such a bill a second time? Understand why this is called an absolute veto and not a suspensive veto, and whether states in the USA and Australia face anything similar. Also know what the Supreme Court's 2025 opinion on the Presidential Reference said about timelines and judicial review of the President's decision on such bills.

4.Critical Evaluation of the Federal System

• K.C. Wheare's 'Quasi-Federal' DescriptionImportance 5/5
  Why have some constitutional experts questioned whether the Indian Constitution is truly federal? Understand what K.C. Wheare meant by 'quasi-federal'. Remember his remark on whether India is a unitary state with federal features or a federal state with unitary features.
• K. Santhanam on the Unitary BiasImportance 4/5
  What two factors did K. Santhanam see behind the growing unitary bias (centralisation) of the Constitution? Remember his remark on how India has worked in practice. Also know which body later replaced one of the institutions he pointed to, and in which year.
• How Other Scholars Described Indian FederalismImportance 5/5
  Who described Indian federalism in each of these terms: 'extremely federal', 'bargaining federalism', 'a federation with a strong centralising tendency', 'sui generis' (meaning unique) and 'cooperative federalism'? Remember the person behind each phrase, and understand why the scholar who used 'cooperative federalism' did not see the states as weak.
• Ambedkar's View on the Nature of the ConstitutionImportance 4/5
  On what ground did Dr. B.R. Ambedkar call the Constitution federal, and from where did he say the Union and the states get their authority? Understand how he thought it could be both unitary and federal. You should be able to explain his reply to the complaint that the Constitution was too centralised and had reduced the states to municipalities.
• S.R. Bommai Case on FederalismImportance 5/5
  In the S.R. Bommai case (1994), what did the Supreme Court hold about federalism, and how does this link to the basic structure of the Constitution? Understand how the Court viewed the Centre's greater powers, including its powers during an emergency, and what it said about the position of the states.
• Indian Federalism as a CompromiseImportance 3/5
  Indian federalism is often called a compromise. What two conflicting considerations does it balance, and in what circumstances does each one apply?
• Trends Reflecting the Federal SpiritImportance 3/5
  Know the seven trends in the working of Indian politics that show its federal spirit, with one example for each (for instance, which two states dispute Belgaum, or which new states were created to meet regional demands).

1. 1.

   Consider the following statements:
   1. The term 'federation' is derived from the Latin word 'foedus', meaning treaty or agreement.
   2. Canada is an example of a federation formed by way of integration.
   3. The US is the first and the oldest federation in the world, formed in 1787.
   Which of the statements given above are correct?

   1. A1 and 2 only
   2. B2 and 3 only
   3. C1 and 3 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
2. 2.

   Consider the following statements:
   Statement-I: In its centralising tendency, that is, vesting more powers in the centre vis-a-vis the states, the Indian federation resembles the Canadian federation.
   Statement-II: The Canadian model of federation establishes a very strong centre.
   Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

   1. ABoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I
   2. BBoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
   3. CStatement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
   4. DStatement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
3. 3.

   Consider the following features of the Indian Constitution:
   1. All-India services
   2. Integrated audit machinery
   3. Bicameralism
   4. Veto over state bills
   How many of the above are unitary or non-federal features?

   1. AOnly one
   2. BOnly two
   3. COnly three
   4. DAll four
4. 4.

   Consider the following pairs:

   Name for the units of a federation	Country
   1. Cantons	Switzerland
   2. Provinces	Canada
   3. Republics	Russia

   Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

   1. A1 only
   2. B1 and 2 only
   3. C2 and 3 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
5. 5.

   Consider the following statements:
   1. In India, residuary subjects are given to the Centre, whereas in the US they are vested in the states.
   2. If the Centre and a state make conflicting laws on a subject in the Concurrent List, the state law prevails.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

   1. A1 only
   2. B2 only
   3. CBoth 1 and 2
   4. DNeither 1 nor 2
6. 6.

   Match List I with List II:

   List I (Scholar)	List II (Description of Indian federalism)
   A. Paul Appleby	1. 'Bargaining federalism'
   B. Alexandrowicz	2. 'Extremely federal'
   C. K.C. Wheare	3. 'Quasi-federal'
   D. Morris Jones	4. 'A case sui generis'

   Select the correct answer using the code given below:

   1. AA-2, B-4, C-3, D-1
   2. BA-4, B-2, C-3, D-1
   3. CA-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
   4. DA-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
7. 7.

   Consider the following:
   1. The dominance of the Centre in the financial sphere and the dependence of the states on Central grants
   2. The emergence of a powerful planning commission that controlled the development process in the states
   3. The emergency provisions of the Constitution
   How many of the above did K. Santhanam identify as factors responsible for increasing the unitary bias of the Constitution?

   1. AOnly one
   2. BOnly two
   3. CAll three
   4. DNone
8. 8.

   Consider the following statements:
   1. States are represented in the Rajya Sabha on the basis of population, so their membership varies from 1 to 31.
   2. The American Senate has two members from each state.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

   1. A1 only
   2. B2 only
   3. CBoth 1 and 2
   4. DNeither 1 nor 2
9. 9.

   Consider the following statements:
   Statement-I: The President enjoys an absolute veto, and not a suspensive veto, over state bills reserved by the Governor.
   Statement-II: The President can withhold assent to such bills not only in the first instance but also in the second instance.
   Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

   1. ABoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I
   2. BBoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
   3. CStatement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
   4. DStatement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
10. 10.

    Which one of the following is NOT a federal feature of the Constitution of India?

    1. AWritten Constitution
    2. BIndependent judiciary
    3. CBicameralism
    4. DSingle citizenship
11. 11.

    Consider the following comparisons:
    1. India has an integrated judiciary, while the US has a double system of courts.
    2. In appointing the Governor, India adopted the Canadian system.
    3. India, like Canada, adopted single citizenship.
    How many of the above statements are correct?

    1. AOnly one
    2. BOnly two
    3. CAll three
    4. DNone
12. 12.

    With reference to the S.R. Bommai case (1994), consider the following statements:
    1. The Supreme Court characterised federalism as a 'basic feature' of the Constitution.
    2. The Court observed that the states are mere appendages of the Centre.
    3. The Court said that federalism in the Indian Constitution is a matter of administrative convenience rather than of principle.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    1. A1 only
    2. B1 and 2 only
    3. C2 and 3 only
    4. D1, 2 and 3
13. 13.

    Consider the following trends in the working of the Indian political system:
    1. The Maharashtra–Karnataka dispute over Belgaum
    2. The Karnataka–Tamil Nadu dispute over Cauvery water
    3. The emergence of regional parties coming to power in states
    4. The Supreme Court's procedural limitations on the use of Article 356
    How many of the above reflect the federal spirit of the Indian political system?

    1. AOnly one
    2. BOnly two
    3. COnly three
    4. DAll four
14. 14.

    With reference to Parliament's authority over the State List, consider the following statements:
    1. Extending Parliament's legislative competence to a State List subject requires a constitutional amendment.
    2. Parliament can legislate on a State List subject in the national interest even when no emergency is in operation.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    1. A1 only
    2. B2 only
    3. CBoth 1 and 2
    4. DNeither 1 nor 2
15. 15.

    Consider the following statements:
    Statement-I: The office of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India restricts the financial autonomy of the states.
    Statement-II: The American Comptroller-General audits the accounts of the states.
    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    1. ABoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I
    2. BBoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
    3. CStatement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
    4. DStatement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

1. 1.

   UPSC 2005

   Consider the following statements:
   1. Articles 371A to 371I were inserted in the Constitution of India to meet regional demands of Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, Andhra Pradesh, Sikkim, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Goa.
   2. Constitution of India and the United States of America can envisage a dual policy (the Union and the States) but a single citizenship.
   3. A naturalized citizen of India can never be deprived of his citizenship.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

   1. A1, 2 and 3
   2. B1 and 3
   3. C3 only
   4. D1 only
2. 2.

   UPSC 2021

   Which one of the following in Indian polity is an essential feature that indicates that it is federal in character?

   1. AThe independence of judiciary is safeguarded.
   2. BThe Union Legislature has elected representatives from constituent units.
   3. CThe Union Cabinet can have elected representatives from regional parties.
   4. DThe Fundamental Rights are enforceable by Courts of Law.
3. 3.

   UPSC 2017

   Which one of the following is not a feature of Indian federalism ?

   1. AThere is an independent judiciary in India.
   2. BPowers have been clearly divided between the Centre and the States.
   3. CThe federating units have been given unequal representation in the Rajya Sabha.
   4. DIt is the result of an agreement among the federating units.