Biodiversity and Its Conservation

1.Terms Related to Biodiversity

• Number of Species on EarthImportance 3/5UPSC 1996
  Remember the rough scale of the estimated number of species on Earth (land and ocean) against the few that are formally described. Where are most undiscovered species likely to be found? Which groups dominate the described species? Is the insect share counted out of animals or out of all species?
• Meaning of BiodiversityImportance 3/5
  Understand what biodiversity covers, from genes to species to ecosystems. Remember the two components by which it is measured.
• Species Richness and Species EvennessImportance 3/5
  How does species richness differ from species evenness? Work through a two-forest example with the same species and the same number of animals but a different spread, and decide which is more even. Which land and sea ecosystems show the highest richness?
• Alpha, Beta and Gamma DiversityImportance 4/5
  Which scale does each of these describe: a single ecosystem, the change between ecosystems, or a whole region? Understand how alpha diversity is usually expressed and what beta diversity measures.
• Genetic DiversityImportance 3/5
  What is genetic diversity, and where does it sit among the levels of biodiversity? Understand the human example. You should be able to explain why it helps a species adapt when conditions change.
• Species Diversity and the Latitudinal GradientImportance 3/5UPSC 2011
  Which two earlier ideas does species diversity bring together? Remember how it changes from the equator towards the poles, and that there are exceptions. The 0-to-1 ratio sometimes quoted for it is really a dominance index (Simpson's), so be clear about what 0 and 1 mean for that index.
• Ecological DiversityImportance 3/5
  What is ecological diversity? Know why India has more of it than a country such as Norway, with examples of India's habitat types. Be clear how genetic, species and ecological diversity differ from one another.
• Endemism and Cosmopolitan DistributionImportance 3/5UPSC 2024
  When is a species endemic? Understand endemism at the scale of an island, a country or a habitat type. Is a species that is native to a place but also found elsewhere endemic? What is the opposite term?
• Keystone SpeciesImportance 4/5UPSC 2000
  Why does the loss of one keystone species change a whole community? Remember the usual examples (top predators, elephants, corals, pollinators) and the case of plants that depend on bats for pollination. Is every top predator automatically a keystone species?
• BioprospectingImportance 3/5
  Understand bioprospecting as the search for commercially valuable genes and biochemicals in nature. At which levels does it study biodiversity (molecular, genetic, species)?
• BiopiracyImportance 4/5UPSC 2012
  How does biopiracy differ from bioprospecting? Think about consent and benefit-sharing. Remember what PIC and MAT stand for and which international protocol uses them. Understand how the Biological Diversity Act aims to prevent biopiracy.

2.Biodiversity Hotspots

• Biodiversity Hotspot Concept and CriteriaImportance 5/5UPSC 2010, 2011, 2015
  Who proposed the hotspot concept, and which organisation adopted it and when? Remember the two criteria and their thresholds (endemic plant species and habitat loss). Does a region with high endemism alone qualify? Know what kind of body that organisation is.
• Number and Coverage of Global HotspotsImportance 3/5UPSC 2009
  How did the number of global hotspots grow from the first list to the present? Remember the 35th and 36th additions, and know the current count. Compare the hotspots' share of land with their share of endemic plants and vertebrates. Are hotspots found only in the tropics?
• Biodiversity Hotspots in IndiaImportance 5/5UPSC 1996, 2009, 2010
  Which four hotspots include parts of India, and which Indian regions fall in each? Do the Andaman and Nicobar groups belong to the same hotspot? Why is "Eastern Himalaya" no longer used as a hotspot name? Be able to tell a correct list of India's hotspots from a wrong one.
• Hope SpotsImportance 2/5
  What is a Hope Spot, and which global initiative names them? How is it different from a biodiversity hotspot? Know India's Hope Spot sites.

3.Biodiversity of India

• India's Share of Global Biodiversity and EndemismImportance 3/5
  How large is India's share of the world's land, recorded species and human population? Know the rough figures, not exact decimals, as these figures change. Among amphibians, reptiles, mammals, birds and plants, which show the highest and lowest endemism?
• Mega-Diverse CountriesImportance 3/5
  What are mega-diverse countries, and which organisation identified the group? Remember how many there are. Compare their share of Earth's surface with their share of terrestrial diversity. Know some members from each continent, including India's Asian peers.
• Biogeographic Realms of IndiaImportance 3/5UPSC 2011
  What is a biogeographic realm, and what does biogeography study? Which realms cover the Himalayan region and the rest of the subcontinent? By what other names is the second realm known?
• Biogeographic Zones and Provinces of India (10 Zones, 27 Provinces)Importance 4/5
  Remember the ten biogeographic zones in order. Which zones hold the most provinces, and which provinces cover the islands and coasts? Understand why this classification is used in conservation and protected-area planning.
• Characteristic Species of the Biogeographic ProvincesImportance 2/5
  Which signature animals and plants identify the distinctive provinces? Cover Ladakh and Changthang, the Thar, Kachchh, Gir, the Western Ghats, the Terai, the Brahmaputra valley, the North-East hills, and the Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands.
• Biomes of IndiaImportance 2/5
  Be clear what a biome is, and remember India's five biomes. How does a biome differ from a biogeographic zone?

4.Loss of Biodiversity

• Meaning of Biodiversity Loss and Recorded ExtinctionsImportance 2/5
  What does biodiversity loss mean at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels? Remember roughly how many extinctions the IUCN Red List records for the last 500 years. The figure usually quoted comes from the 2004 Red List, so it is a rough count, not a current one. Also know a few well-known extinct species such as the passenger pigeon and Steller's sea cow.
• Mass Extinctions and the Sixth ExtinctionImportance 3/5UPSC 2018
  How many mass extinctions did Earth see before the present one? Distinguish the sixth extinction from the earlier ones in cause and in rate. Know how much faster present extinction rates are estimated to be than before humans.
• IPBES: Nature, Membership and RoleImportance 4/5
  What kind of body is IPBES? Remember the year it was set up, its seat, its link to the UN and India's membership. Does it do original research? Why is it called the "IPCC for biodiversity"? Membership changes, so know the current number.
• IPBES Global Assessment Report 2019Importance 3/5
  Remember the headline findings: the estimated number of species and the number threatened, the groups most at risk, how much of the land and the sea humans have significantly altered, and the losses of wetlands and coral. What are the five direct drivers of loss, in order of global impact? Understand why the report became the scientific basis of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).
• IPBES Nexus and Transformative Change Assessments (2024)Importance 3/5
  Which interlinked crises did the 2024 Nexus Assessment examine? What did it find about the cost of nature loss and the economy's dependence on nature? In the Transformative Change Assessment, understand what "transformative change" means, along with its underlying causes and its strategies.
• IPBES Business and Biodiversity Assessment (2026)Importance 3/5
  When was this assessment approved, and what does it examine? Understand its main message on how business depends on nature and affects it, and how that links to the KMGBF target on corporate disclosure.
• Living Planet Report and Living Planet IndexImportance 4/5
  Who publishes the Living Planet Report, and who compiles the Living Planet Index? Remember how often it appears and when it began. Know the latest headline decline and which ecosystem type and region are hit hardest; these figures change with each edition. Does the index count species lost, or average change in populations?
• State of the World's Birds ReportImportance 3/5
  Is the report published by the IUCN or by another body? Remember how often it appears and why birds are used as indicators. Know its main findings: the share of species declining, the number threatened and the largest threat. Which body carried out the bird assessments behind the IUCN Red List updates of 2024 and 2025, and what did those updates add?

5.Causes Behind Biodiversity Loss

• Temporary and Permanent Biodiversity Loss and the Evil QuartetImportance 4/5UPSC 2012
  Why is loss from natural disturbance only temporary, while human-caused loss can be permanent? What are the four causes known as the Evil Quartet? Remember the six key threats named by WWF.
• Deterministic and Stochastic Extinction ProcessesImportance 3/5
  How do deterministic and stochastic extinction processes differ? Understand each with its examples. Remember the traits that make a species more likely to go extinct when its habitat is broken up.
• Co-ExtinctionsImportance 3/5UPSC 1998
  Understand co-extinction: how one extinction can cause another, using the host fish and parasite example and the plant-pollinator example.
• Habitat Loss and Habitat FragmentationImportance 4/5UPSC 2012
  How does losing habitat differ from breaking it into isolated patches? Understand why the two together are seen as the leading cause of extinction. Remember the tropical rainforest example.
• Barrier Effect, Inbreeding and Inbreeding DepressionImportance 3/5
  What is the barrier effect? Explain how it leads to inbreeding, inbreeding depression and local extinction. Understand why recessive alleles make inbreeding risky. Remember the examples of Central India's tigers and the koalas of Australia.
• Highways Fragmenting India's Tiger Habitats (NH 44, NH 53, NH 715)Importance 3/5
  Which tiger reserves and corridors does each of these highways cut through? Remember the planned flyover on NH 715 at Kaziranga. Know roughly how much road passes through India's forests and protected areas.
• Invasive Alien Species as a Driver of LossImportance 4/5UPSC 2012
  What makes an alien species invasive, and why do invasive species often succeed? Remember the Nile perch case in Lake Victoria, and how some invasive plants change the soil to block other plants. Older sources call invasive species the second-biggest cause of loss. Where do they stand in the IPBES ranking of the five direct drivers?
• Invasion of Shola Forests and Nilgiri GrasslandsImportance 3/5
  What are shola forests, and where do they occur? Which invasive species are degrading them? Explain how warmer nights and less frost let acacia spread into the grasslands, and what follows from it. Remember why the Todas, a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG), depend on these grasslands.
• Pathways of Introduction and Threats to Native WildlifeImportance 3/5
  By which routes do invasive species reach new areas? Think of shipping, timber, garden plants, deliberate release and climate change. Distinguish the direct threats they pose to native wildlife from the indirect ones.
• IPBES Invasive Alien Species Assessment 2023Importance 3/5
  How many alien species has human activity spread, and how many of them are invasive? What share of recorded extinctions did invasive species play a part in? Be clear on the difference between "alien" and "invasive".
• Over-ExploitationImportance 3/5
  How does over-harvesting drive species loss? Remember examples of extinct species and the groups now over-harvested (fish, whales, trees, medicinal plants). Understand how poaching has pushed large mammals towards extinction.
• Genetically Modified Organisms and BiodiversityImportance 3/5
  What is a genetically modified organism (GMO)? Understand the technique with the Bt cotton example. Explain how GM crops can reduce biodiversity, with reference to dominance over other species, transgene flow and heavy herbicide use.
• Genetically Modified MosquitoesImportance 2/5
  How is the self-limiting gene meant to cut the mosquito population? Remember the company and the country where the mosquitoes were released. Why did the results raise concern about genes spreading into wild populations?
• Trade in WildlifeImportance 3/5
  How do unsustainable and illegal wildlife trade harm biodiversity? Explain the links to habitat loss, the loss of buffer zones between people and wild animals, and the spread of disease where sanitary standards are not enforced.
• Pollution and Climate Change as DriversImportance 3/5UPSC 2012
  How do these two drivers affect marine life (think of ocean acidification) and life on land (think of extreme weather and shifting ranges)?

6.Consequences of Loss of Biodiversity

• Effects on Livelihoods and HealthImportance 2/5
  Explain how changes in ecosystem services affect food security, livelihoods, income, migration and even political conflict. Why might biodiversity loss limit the discovery of treatments for diseases?
• Zoonoses and Habitat LossImportance 3/5
  Be clear what zoonoses are, and remember rabies and Ebola as examples with their usual animal hosts; the source of COVID-19 is still debated. Explain why a less diverse ecosystem and the loss of natural buffers make spillover from animals to people more likely.
• Adverse Changes to Biotic InteractionsImportance 2/5
  What happens to an ecosystem when a species' niche shrinks as its numbers fall, even before it is extinct? Understand this through the example of clearing trees from a forest.
• Meaning and Causes of Human-Animal ConflictImportance 3/5
  Know what counts as human-animal conflict, and remember its causes, from encroachment and land-use change to livestock and ecotourism. Why can the success of conservation programmes itself increase conflict?
• Impacts and Mitigation of Human-Animal ConflictImportance 3/5
  What harm does conflict cause to people, livestock and wildlife (think of the snow leopard, tiger and leopard examples)? Remember the mitigation options, why many are costly, and what community-based natural resource management schemes (CBNRMS) are.
• Natural and Controlled CullingImportance 2/5
  How does natural culling differ from controlled culling by humans? Understand why controlled culling became necessary. Remember country examples such as feral cats, kangaroos and camels in Australia, and the Varroa mite outbreak.
• Debate Over CullingImportance 3/5
  What do animal-welfare activists argue against culling (ethical, conservation and apathy arguments)? What do its supporters say (practical need, illegal retaliation, failure of fencing)? Remember the Sirmour garlic example.

7.Ex Situ Conservation

• Meaning and Methods of Ex Situ ConservationImportance 4/5UPSC 2011
  What is ex situ conservation, and which institutions serve it (zoos, botanical gardens, safari parks, seed banks)? Understand how zoos moved from entertainment to captive breeding. Is a botanical garden an in situ or an ex situ site?
• Cryopreservation, In Vitro Fertilisation and Tissue CultureImportance 3/5
  Understand how each of these techniques helps conserve threatened species, and which of them works on gametes and tissues and which on plants.
• Seed Banks and the National Gene BankImportance 3/5
  Why do we keep seed banks? Remember India's National Gene Bank: which institution hosts it, and where is it?

8.National Initiatives for Biodiversity Conservation

• Eco-Bridges for Wildlife ConnectivityImportance 3/5
  Why are eco-bridges needed where roads, railways and canals cut wildlife corridors? Remember the types (viaducts, canopy bridges, amphibian tunnels) and the NH 44 example.
• Plant Quarantine System and Its GapsImportance 2/5
  Which Act and Order govern plant imports into India, and which directorate runs the quarantine stations? Who issues the phytosanitary certificate? Understand when fumigation is used as a treatment. What problems weaken the working of the quarantine centres?
• Western and Eastern Ghats: Significance and ThreatsImportance 3/5
  Why do both ranges matter? Remember the Western Ghats' extent, states, World Heritage status, hotspot status and the IUCN 2025 Outlook rating. How do the Eastern Ghats differ in shape and extent? Know the main threats, including the felling of red sanders.
• Gadgil Committee (WGEEP) RecommendationsImportance 4/5
  When was the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel set up, and when did it report? Remember the extent of the Ghats it proposed as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA), the zoning into ESZ I to III with the share placed in ESZ I and II, the bans on dams and polluting industries, and the proposed statutory authority. Understand its bottom-up approach from gram sabhas and why it was criticised.
• Kasturirangan Committee (HLWG) RecommendationsImportance 4/5
  Why was the High-Level Working Group formed? Remember the share of the Western Ghats it proposed as ESA. Compare its permissions and bans with the Gadgil Committee's, especially on hydropower, size of construction and townships.
• Western Ghats ESA Draft Notifications and Their StatusImportance 3/5
  What would the draft notifications prohibit and allow? Remember the area they cover and the deadline set by the NGT. The drafts have been re-issued more than once, so know the current position.
• Biodiversity LeakageImportance 2/5
  Understand biodiversity leakage through the Supreme Court's ban on mining within 1 km of national parks and sanctuaries: could protecting the edges shift pressure elsewhere?
• Sundarlal Bahuguna and the Anti-Tehri Dam MovementImportance 3/5
  Who was Sundarlal Bahuguna? Remember the movements he led, the titles given to him and his well-known saying. Why was the Tehri Dam opposed? Know its river, region, rank among dams and seismic risk.
• Chipko MovementImportance 4/5
  What does Chipko mean, and which Gandhian methods did it use? Remember the 1730 Khejarli event (Bishnois, Amrita Devi, khejri tree), the 1973 start in the Alaknanda valley (Chandi Prasad Bhatt and the Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh), Gaura Devi at Reni, and Bahuguna's march with the 1980 ban on felling. What policy change followed?
• Appiko MovementImportance 3/5
  Where and when did the Appiko Movement take place, what does the word mean, and how is it linked to Chipko?

9.Convention on Biological Diversity

• CBD: Origin, Parties and Three ObjectivesImportance 5/5
  Where and when was the Convention on Biological Diversity opened for signature, and when did it come into force? Is it legally binding? Know the current number of parties and which states remain outside it. What are its three objectives?
• Cartagena Protocol on BiosafetyImportance 5/5UPSC 2005, 2009
  What does the Cartagena Protocol regulate? Remember when it was adopted and came into force, and when India ratified it. Understand how it treats living modified organisms (LMOs). Which of Annex-I countries, Certified Emission Reductions and the Clean Development Mechanism belong to Kyoto and not to Cartagena?
• Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-SharingImportance 5/5UPSC 2023
  Which CBD objective does the Nagoya Protocol carry out? Remember where and when it was adopted and when it came into force. When did India ratify it, and when did India become a Party? These are two different dates. Understand PIC and MAT, and the role of Biodiversity Management Committees in India. Has India submitted its first national report under the protocol, and when?
• Aichi Biodiversity Targets and Their OutcomeImportance 4/5
  What was the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020? Remember its five goals (A to E) and the number of Aichi Targets. At which COP, where and when were they adopted? What did the Global Biodiversity Outlook 5 report find about progress?
• Sharm El Sheikh Declaration (COP14)Importance 2/5
  In which country was this declaration adopted? What is the CBD's 2050 Vision called? "New Deal for Nature" was a campaign slogan around COP14, not the Vision's name. What work did the declaration set in motion?
• CBD COP15 and the Global Biodiversity Framework FundImportance 4/5
  Why did COP15 shift from Kunming to Montreal, and who co-hosted it? Which protocol meetings were held alongside it? Under which existing body was the Global Biodiversity Framework Fund placed? Understand India's call for a dedicated fund and for CBDR (common but differentiated responsibilities).
• Four Global Goals for 2050Importance 4/5
  What are the four global goals of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework for 2050? Understand what each asks for, including the extinction goal and the finance gap.
• Targets for Reducing Threats to Biodiversity (Targets 1–8)Importance 5/5
  Which eight targets aim to cut threats to biodiversity by 2030? Be clear on the two separate 30% targets, one for restoring degraded ecosystems and one for conserving areas, and which of them is called 30x30. Remember the 50% targets for invasive species (what exactly is halved?) and for pesticide and nutrient risk. Understand the targets on planning, extinction, harvesting and climate.
• Targets for Sustainable Use, Benefit-Sharing and Implementation (Targets 9–23)Importance 4/5
  Understand the targets on sustainable use and benefit-sharing, such as green and blue spaces in cities and sharing benefits from genetic resources, including digital sequence information. Understand the implementation targets on business disclosure, biosafety, gender and participation. Remember the figures for cutting harmful subsidies, total finance, and international flows by 2025 and 2030.
• AIM4NatuReImportance 2/5
  What is AIM4NatuRe, and which organisation leads it? When was it launched? Which KMGBF target does it support, and what does it monitor?
• India's Updated NBSAP and National Biodiversity TargetsImportance 4/5
  When and where did India release its updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP), and how many national biodiversity targets does it set? Is its commitment on area about restoration, conservation or both? Has India submitted its Seventh National Report to the CBD, and when? Understand how BIOFIN and the National Biodiversity Authority help finance the plan.
• CBD COP16 Outcomes (Cali and Rome)Importance 3/5
  Where did COP16 meet, and where did it resume? Remember its decisions on resource mobilisation, the monitoring framework with the PMRR (Planning, Monitoring, Reporting and Review) mechanism, the new rules for describing Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSAs), and the new permanent subsidiary body on Article 8(j) for indigenous peoples and local communities.
• Cali Fund and Digital Sequence InformationImportance 4/5
  Why was a fund needed for sharing the benefits of Digital Sequence Information (DSI), and what is DSI? Who is expected to pay into the Cali Fund? Are contributions mandatory or voluntary, and what indicative rate was set? Remember the agencies that administer it and the share reserved for indigenous peoples and local communities.
• CBD COP17 in Yerevan (2026)Importance 3/5
  When is COP17 held, and which protocol meetings sit alongside it? Understand why it matters as the first global review of progress on the Kunming-Montreal framework, and which finance and DSI questions are on its agenda. Know its outcomes as they are announced.

10.Other International Efforts

• Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape RestorationImportance 2/5
  Which organisation started this partnership, and how does it relate to the Bonn Challenge?
• Bonn Challenge and India's Restoration PledgeImportance 4/5
  When and by whom was the Bonn Challenge launched, and what are its 2020 and 2030 targets? When did India join, what were its original pledges, and at which forum was the pledge raised?
• New York Declaration on ForestsImportance 4/5UPSC 2021
  Is the declaration legally binding? Know when and where it began, who has endorsed it, and its goals on halting forest loss and restoring land. Did India sign it, and why or why not?
• Forest Landscape Restoration and Its PrinciplesImportance 3/5
  Understand what Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) means, and which bodies coined the term and when. How does it differ from site-based restoration? Understand its seven principles and India's related programmes, such as the Green India Mission and CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority).
• World Forestry CongressImportance 2/5
  How often does the World Forestry Congress meet, under whose auspices, and who organises it? Remember its 2022 edition: host city and theme.
• Seoul Declaration and the AFFIRM and SAFE InitiativesImportance 2/5
  What did the Seoul Declaration stress? What do AFFIRM and SAFE stand for?
• UN Strategic Plan for Forests 2017–2030Importance 3/5
  Which forum adopted this plan? Remember the number of Global Forest Goals and targets, whether they are binding, and the target for increasing forest area.
• UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021–2030Importance 4/5
  Which body proclaimed the Decade, and which agencies lead it? Understand which agreements and conventions its work is meant to support.
• Biodiversity Finance Initiative (BIOFIN)Importance 3/5
  Which agency launched BIOFIN, and when? What gap does it address? Who hosts it in India, and which institutions give technical help?
• World Heritage Convention and Natural Heritage CriteriaImportance 4/5UPSC 2014
  Which body adopted the World Heritage Convention, and when? Understand "outstanding universal value" and the rule that a site must meet at least one of ten criteria. What do the four natural-heritage criteria cover? Does the Convention bear on biodiversity?
• International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and AgricultureImportance 4/5UPSC 2014
  By what popular name is this treaty known, and which organisation is behind it? How does it relate to the CBD? Understand its aims of food security and fair benefit-sharing, and why it bears on biodiversity.

11.Biological Diversity Act, 2002

• Background and Aim of the Biological Diversity ActImportance 4/5
  Which international commitment led to this Act? Understand what it regulates, how it links access to biological resources with benefit-sharing, and how it aims to prevent biopiracy.
• Three-Tier Structure: NBA, SBBs and BMCsImportance 5/5
  Which body works at the national, state and local level? Understand which tier deals with foreign applicants and which with Indian ones.
• National Biodiversity Authority: Status and FunctionsImportance 5/5
  What are the NBA's legal status, seat and powers? Understand its functions: regulating access, benefit-sharing, the National Biodiversity Fund, People's Biodiversity Registers and advice to the government. Who notifies Biodiversity Heritage Sites? Does the NBA or the GEAC supervise research on genetic modification of crops?
• Activities Needing NBA Approval Under the 2002 ActImportance 4/5UPSC 2012
  Which activities need prior NBA approval: obtaining resources, transferring research results, applying for IPRs? Who is exempt, such as local people and collaborative research under government guidelines? Does the IPR approval apply to Indian applicants too?
• Biodiversity Management Committees and People's Biodiversity RegistersImportance 4/5UPSC 2023
  What do Biodiversity Management Committees do, and can they charge collection fees? How are they tied to the Nagoya Protocol? What do People's Biodiversity Registers record? Know the current coverage of both rather than a fixed count.
• Objectives of the 2023 AmendmentImportance 3/5
  What did the Amendment Act aim to achieve? Remember its aims on cultivating medicinal plants, Indian systems of medicine, fast-tracking research and patents, and foreign investment.
• Benefit-Sharing Before and After the 2023 AmendmentImportance 4/5
  Who decided the terms of benefit-sharing under the 2002 Act, and how did the Amendment change this? Understand what it removed (for research, bio-survey and bio-utilisation), the exemption for traditional medicine, and the new roles of State Biodiversity Boards and the NBA.
• Prior Approval and Treatment of Companies After the 2023 AmendmentImportance 4/5
  Who still needs prior approval after the Amendment? Remember the exemptions for AYUSH practitioners and for those using codified traditional knowledge. Among companies registered in India, which need NBA approval and which only give prior intimation to the State Biodiversity Board? Contrast a foreign-controlled company with an Indian-controlled company that has foreign shareholding.
• IPR Approval and Decriminalisation After the 2023 AmendmentImportance 4/5
  At what stage was NBA approval needed for an IPR under the 2002 Act, and at what stage after 2023? How did the penalties change: imprisonment or fine, versus penalty only?
• Criticism of the 2023 AmendmentImportance 3/5
  Explain the main objections: the sidelining of local bodies and benefit claimers, the undefined term "codified traditional knowledge", the loophole for domestic firms with foreign shareholding, and the effect of decriminalisation.
• Biological Diversity Rules, 2024Importance 3/5
  Which Rules did they replace, and under which section were they notified? Remember the NBA chairperson's appointment and term, the NBA's general functions, and how digital sequence information figures in IPR approval.
• Access and Benefit-Sharing Regulations, 2025Importance 3/5
  When were these Regulations notified, and which earlier regulations did they supersede? Understand how they cover digital sequence information and graded benefit-sharing.

1. 1.

   With reference to biodiversity hotspots, consider the following statements:
   1. The concept was defined by the British biologist Norman Myers.
   2. A region qualifies as a hotspot if it contains at least 1,500 endemic vascular plant species, even if it has lost little of its original habitat.
   3. Conservation International requires a hotspot to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat.
   How many of the above statements are correct?

   1. AOnly one
   2. BOnly two
   3. CAll three
   4. DNone
2. 2.

   Which one of the following correctly lists the global biodiversity hotspots that include parts of India?

   1. AHimalaya, Indo-Burma, Sundaland, and Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
   2. BEastern Himalaya, Western Himalaya, Western Ghats, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands
   3. CHimalaya, Indo-Burma, and Western Ghats and Sri Lanka only
   4. DEastern Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Sundaland, and Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
3. 3.

   With reference to the Nagoya Protocol, consider the following statements:
   1. It was adopted at the tenth Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
   2. India ratified it in 2012 and became a Party when it entered into force in 2014.
   3. It aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

   1. A1 only
   2. B2 only
   3. C1 and 2 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
4. 4.

   Consider the following pairs:

   Term sometimes in the news	Agreement it belongs to
   1. Living modified organisms	Cartagena Protocol
   2. Prior Informed Consent and Mutually Agreed Terms	Nagoya Protocol
   3. Clean Development Mechanism	Cartagena Protocol

   Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

   1. A1 only
   2. B3 only
   3. C2 and 3 only
   4. D1 and 2 only
5. 5.

   With reference to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), consider the following statements:
   1. It is a legally binding multilateral treaty that was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
   2. It entered into force in 1992, the same year in which it was opened for signature.
   3. The United States has ratified it.
   How many of the above statements are correct?

   1. AOnly one
   2. BOnly two
   3. CAll three
   4. DNone
6. 6.

   With reference to the threat-reduction targets of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework for 2030, consider the following statements:
   1. A single target combines the restoration of at least 30% of degraded ecosystems and the conservation of at least 30% of ecosystems.
   2. One target seeks to cut by at least 50% the rates of introduction and establishment of other known or potential invasive alien species.
   3. One target seeks to reduce by 50% the overall risk from pesticides and hazardous chemicals.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

   1. A1 only
   2. B2 and 3 only
   3. C1 and 3 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
7. 7.

   Match List I with List II:

   List I (Body)	List II (Description)
   A. National Biodiversity Authority	1. Local-level body for promoting conservation, sustainable use and documentation of biological diversity
   B. State Biodiversity Boards	2. Autonomous statutory body headquartered in Chennai
   C. Biodiversity Management Committees	3. State-level body under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002
   D. Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee	4. Top biotech regulator for genetically modified organisms, under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

   Select the correct answer using the code given below:

   1. AA-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
   2. BA-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
   3. CA-2, B-3, C-1, D-4
   4. DA-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
8. 8.

   With reference to the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, consider the following statements:
   1. Biodiversity Heritage Sites are notified by the State Government in consultation with local bodies.
   2. The National Biodiversity Authority directly monitors and supervises scientific research on the genetic modification of crop plants.
   3. Monetary benefits, fees and royalties from National Biodiversity Authority approvals are deposited in the National Biodiversity Fund.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

   1. A1 only
   2. B2 only
   3. C2 and 3 only
   4. D1 and 3 only
9. 9.

   Consider the following statements:
   Statement-I: The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is often described as the 'Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for biodiversity'.
   Statement-II: IPBES does not conduct original research but assesses existing scientific literature on biodiversity.
   Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

   1. ABoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I
   2. BBoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
   3. CStatement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
   4. DStatement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
10. 10.

    According to the IPBES Global Assessment Report (2019), which one of the following lists the five direct drivers of nature loss in descending order of their global impact?

    1. ADirect exploitation; changes in land and sea use; climate change; pollution; invasive alien species
    2. BChanges in land and sea use; climate change; direct exploitation; invasive alien species; pollution
    3. CChanges in land and sea use; direct exploitation; climate change; pollution; invasive alien species
    4. DChanges in land and sea use; direct exploitation; invasive alien species; climate change; pollution
11. 11.

    With reference to the committees on the Western Ghats, consider the following statements:
    1. The Gadgil Committee proposed a Western Ghats Ecology Authority with statutory powers.
    2. The Kasturirangan High-Level Working Group recommended a complete ban on hydropower projects in the Western Ghats.
    3. The Kasturirangan High-Level Working Group allowed construction projects up to 20,000 sq m but banned townships.
    4. The Gadgil Committee asked for a bottom-to-top approach, starting from gram sabhas.
    How many of the above statements are correct?

    1. AOnly one
    2. BOnly two
    3. COnly three
    4. DAll four
12. 12.

    Consider the following pairs:

    Person or place	Association
    1. Amrita Devi	Led the Bishnois who sacrificed their lives protecting khejri trees at Khejarli in 1730
    2. Gaura Devi	Mobilised women of Reni village to confront loggers
    3. Tehri Dam	Multipurpose dam on the Alaknanda River

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    1. A1 and 2 only
    2. B2 and 3 only
    3. C1 and 3 only
    4. D1, 2 and 3
13. 13.

    With reference to the conservation of biodiversity, consider the following statements:
    1. Botanical gardens are sites of in situ conservation of flora.
    2. The National Gene Bank, hosted by ICAR-NBPGR in Delhi, primarily conserves unique accessions in the form of seeds.
    3. Gametes and tissues of threatened species can be kept viable for extended periods through cryopreservation.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    1. A1 only
    2. B2 and 3 only
    3. C1 and 2 only
    4. D1, 2 and 3
14. 14.

    Consider the following statements:
    Statement-I: Invasive species such as eucalyptus, wattle and Lantana are degrading the shola forests of the Nilgiris.
    Statement-II: Frost has become more frequent in the Nilgiris over the years, which has helped acacia plantations spread from the sholas into the grasslands.
    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    1. ABoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I
    2. BBoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
    3. CStatement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
    4. DStatement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
15. 15.

    With reference to the New York Declaration on Forests, consider the following statements:
    1. It was adopted in 2014 at the UN Secretary-General's Climate Summit.
    2. It is a voluntary and non-binding international declaration.
    3. Its goals include halting natural forest loss by 2030 and restoring 350 million hectares of degraded landscapes and forestlands.
    4. India did not sign it.
    How many of the above statements are correct?

    1. AOnly one
    2. BOnly two
    3. COnly three
    4. DAll four
16. 16.

    With reference to the Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act, 2023, consider the following statements:
    1. Approval of the National Biodiversity Authority for an IPR is required before the grant of the IPR instead of before the application.
    2. Foreign-controlled companies registered in India are exempt from the requirement of National Biodiversity Authority approval.
    3. Offences under the Act are decriminalised and made punishable only with a penalty.
    How many of the above statements are correct?

    1. AOnly one
    2. BOnly two
    3. CAll three
    4. DNone
17. 17.

    Match List I with List II:

    List I (Initiative)	List II (Description)
    A. Biodiversity Finance Initiative (BIOFIN)	1. Launched by UNDP in 2012 to fill the biodiversity finance gap at the national level
    B. AIM4NatuRe	2. Ecosystem monitoring initiative led by FAO
    C. Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration	3. Global network initiated by IUCN
    D. Seoul Declaration	4. Associated with the 2022 World Forestry Congress

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    1. AA-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
    2. BA-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
    3. CA-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
    4. DA-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
18. 18.

    Consider the following statements:
    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, popularly known as the International Seed Treaty, is in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity.
    2. A site nominated for the World Heritage List must meet all ten UNESCO criteria.
    3. One of the criteria for natural heritage covers habitats for rare endangered animals or plants, or sites of exceptional biodiversity.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    1. A1 only
    2. B1 and 3 only
    3. C2 and 3 only
    4. D1, 2 and 3
19. 19.

    In the measurement of biodiversity, 'gamma diversity' refers to which one of the following?

    1. AThe diversity within a particular area or ecosystem, usually expressed as the number of species
    2. BThe change in the number of species between ecosystems
    3. CThe relative abundance of the different species making up the richness of an area
    4. DThe overall diversity of the different ecosystems within a region
20. 20.

    With reference to the Bonn Challenge, consider the following statements:
    1. It was launched in 2011 by the Government of Germany and IUCN to restore 150 million hectares of deforested and degraded land by 2020.
    2. India joined it at the UNCCD COP14 held in New Delhi in 2019.
    3. India's pledge was increased to 26 million hectares by 2030 at the UNCCD COP14 held in New Delhi in 2019.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    1. A1 and 3 only
    2. B1 and 2 only
    3. C2 and 3 only
    4. D1, 2 and 3

1. 1.

   UPSC 2025

   Which organization has enacted the Nature Restoration Law (NRL) to tackle climate change and biodiversity loss?

   1. AThe European Union
   2. BThe World Bank
   3. CThe Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
   4. DThe Food and Agriculture Organization
2. 2.

   UPSC 2024

   Consider the following pairs :

   Country	Animal found in its natural habitat
   1. Brazil	Indri
   2. Indonesia	Elk
   3. Madagascar	Bonobo

   How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched ?

   1. AOnly one
   2. BOnly two
   3. CAll three
   4. DNone
3. 3.

   UPSC 2023

   Consider the following statements :
   1. In India, the Biodiversity Management Committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.
   2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining access and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

   1. A1 only
   2. B2 only
   3. CBoth 1 and 2
   4. DNeither 1 nor 2
4. 4.

   UPSC 2021

   With reference to the ‘New York Declaration on Forests’, which of the following statements are correct?
   1. It was first endorsed at the United Nations Climate Summit in 2014.
   2. It endorses a global timeline to end the loss of forests.
   3. It is a legally binding international declaration.
   4. It is endorsed by governments, big companies and indigenous communities.
   5. India was one of the signatories at its inception.
   Select the correct answer using the code given below.

   1. A1, 2 and 4
   2. B1, 3 and 5
   3. C3 and 4
   4. D2 and 5
5. 5.

   UPSC 2018

   The term "sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction" is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of

   1. AWidespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.
   2. BFears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65 million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs.
   3. CLarge scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their cultivation in other parts of the world which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss of food biodiversity.
   4. DMankind's over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change.
6. 6.

   UPSC 2014

   Consider the following international agreements :
   1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
   2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
   3. The World Heritage Convention
   Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity?

   1. A1 and 2 only
   2. B3 only
   3. C1 and 3 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
7. 7.

   UPSC 2012

   How does National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) help in protecting the Indian agriculture?
   1. NBA checks the biopiracy and protects the indigenous and traditional genetic resources.
   2. NBA directly monitors and supervises the scientific research on genetic modification of crop plants.
   3. Application for Intellectual Property Rights related to genetic/biological resources cannot be made without the approval of NBA.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

   1. A1 only
   2. B2 and 3 only
   3. C1 and 3 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
8. 8.

   UPSC 2012

   Which of the following can be threats to the biodiversity of a geographical area?
   1. Global warming
   2. Fragmentation of habitat
   3. Invasion of alien species
   4. Promotion of vegetarianism
   Select the correct answer using the codes given below :

   1. A1, 2 and 3 only
   2. B2 and 3 only
   3. C1 and 4 only
   4. D1, 2, 3 and 4
9. 9.

   UPSC 2011

   Three of the following criteria have contributed to the recognition of Western Ghats-Sri Lanka and Indo-Burma regions as hotspots of biodiversity:
   1. Species richness
   2. Vegetation density
   3. Endemism
   4. Ethno-botanical importance
   5. Threat perception
   6. Adaptation of flora and fauna to warm and humid conditions Which three of the above are correct criteria in this context?

   1. A1, 2 and 6
   2. B2, 4 and 6
   3. C1, 3 and 5
   4. D3, 4 and 6
10. 10.

    UPSC 2011

    The Himalayan Range is very rich in species diversity. Which one among the following is the most appropriate reason for this phenomenon?

    1. AIt has a high rainfall that supports luxuriant vegetative growth
    2. BIt is a confluence of different bio-geographical zones
    3. CExotic and invasive species have not been introduced in this region
    4. DIt has less human interference
11. 11.

    UPSC 2011

    Which one of the following is not a site for in-situ method of conservation of flora?

    1. ABiosphere Reserve
    2. BBotanical Garden
    3. CNational Park
    4. DWildlife Sanctuary
12. 12.

    UPSC 2011

    Consider the following statements:
    1. Biodiversity is normally greater in the lower latitudes as compared to the higher latitudes.
    2. Along the mountain gradients, biodiversity is normally greater in the lower altitudes as compared to the higher altitudes.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    1. A1 only
    2. B2 only
    3. CBoth 1 and 2
    4. DNeither 1 nor 2
13. 13.

    UPSC 2010

    Consider the following statements :
    1. Biodiversity hotspots are located only in tropical regions.
    2. India has four biodiversity hotspots i.e., Eastern Himalayas, Western Himalayas, Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

    1. A1 only
    2. B2 only
    3. CBoth 1 and 2
    4. DNeither 1 nor 2
14. 14.

    UPSC 2009

    Which one of the following Union Ministries implements the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety ?

    1. AMinistry of Science and Technology
    2. BMinistry of Health and Family Welfare
    3. CMinistry of Environment and Forests
    4. DMinistry of Chemicals and Fertilizers
15. 15.

    UPSC 2009

    Consider the following regions:
    1. Eastern Himalayas
    2. Eastern Mediterranean region
    3. North-western Australia
    Which of the above is/are Biodiversity Hotspot(s)?

    1. A1 only
    2. B1 and 2 only
    3. C2 and 3 only
    4. D1, 2 and 3
16. 16.

    UPSC 2005

    Which one of the following statements is correct?

    1. AThe First Meeting of the Parties (MOP-1) to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was held in the Philippines in 2004.
    2. BIndia is not a signatory to the Biosafety Protocol/Convention on Biological Diversity.
    3. CThe Biosafety Protocol deals with genetically modified organisms.
    4. DThe United States of America is a member of the Biosafety Protocol/Convention on Biological Diversity.
17. 17.

    UPSC 2000

    Within biological communities, some species are important in determining the ability of a large number of other species to persist in the community. Such species are called

    1. AKeystone species
    2. BAllopatric species
    3. CSympatric species
    4. DThreatened species
18. 18.

    UPSC 1998

    A tree species in Mauritius failed to reproduce because of the extinction of a fruit-eating bird.
    Which one of the following was that bird?

    1. ADove
    2. BDodo
    3. CCondor
    4. DSkua
19. 19.

    UPSC 1996

    Which one of the following regions of India is now regarded as an 'ecological hot spot'?

    1. AWestern Himalayas
    2. BEastern Himalayas
    3. CWestern Ghats
    4. DEastern Ghats
20. 20.

    UPSC 1996

    Ecologists have so far found and certified a large number of species in the plant and animal kingdoms. In terms of members, the largest group identified so far is among the

    1. AFungi
    2. BPlants
    3. CInsects
    4. DBacteria
21. 21.

    UPSC 2015

    With reference to an organization known as 'BirdLife International', which of the following statements is/are correct?
    1. It is a Global Partnership of Conservation Organizations.
    2. The concept of 'biodiversity hotspots' originated from this organization.
    3. It identifies the sites known/referred to as 'Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas'.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    1. A1 only
    2. B2 and 3 only
    3. C1 and 3 only
    4. D1, 2 and 3