Rigveda and the Later VedasImportance 3/5
Learn how the Rigveda is built (Mandalas, hymns and verses), its main deities, its traditional attribution, and why it matters in the history of Indo-European languages. Then know what marks out the Samaveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda from one another.
Principal UpanishadsImportance 3/5UPSC 1997
How many Upanishads are there, and how many are called principal? Which two are the oldest? Understand the core ideas of Brahman, Atman and Tat Tvam Asi, and how the Upanishads lead to Vedanta.
Ramayana of ValmikiImportance 2/5
Remember the traditional author, the number of Kandas and shlokas, and which Kanda is thought to be a later addition. Which label presents the Ramayana as the first poem?
Mahabharata and the Bhagavad GitaImportance 3/5
To whom is the Mahabharata attributed? Remember its size (shlokas and Parvans) and the supplement attached to it. In which Parvan does the Bhagavad Gita sit? Which institution produced the critical edition, and in which city?
Panini's AshtadhyayiImportance 4/5UPSC 2020
Panini's period and the number of sutras in the Ashtadhyayi are the facts to remember. Understand why this work is seen as the line between Vedic and Classical Sanskrit.
Patanjali's Mahabhashya and the Two PatanjalisImportance 3/5
What does the Mahabhashya comment on? Tradition identifies its author with the writer of the Yoga Sutras, but most modern scholars treat them as two people. On what grounds, such as period and subject, are they told apart?
Amarasimha's AmarakoshaImportance 3/5UPSC 2020
What kind of work is the Amarakosha, and how are its three books arranged? Remember the court Amarasimha is linked with, and why that link is debated.
Hemachandra and the Apabhramsha GrammarImportance 2/5
Who was Hemachandra, and under which Solanki ruler did he work? Know the fields he wrote on. Understand why his Apabhramsha grammar matters, given that Apabhramsha lies between the Prakrits and the modern Indian languages.
Kautilya's ArthashastraImportance 4/5UPSC 1996
Who wrote the Arthashastra, and what subjects do its 15 books cover? Remember when and by whom it was rediscovered. Understand its place as a Mauryan statecraft text, and why it is compared with a European political work.
Ashokan Edicts as a CorpusImportance 3/5
In which scripts and languages were the Rock and Pillar Edicts written, and in which regions was each used? Some edicts in the Kandahar region (Afghanistan) use other languages. Which ones? Understand why the edicts count as inscriptions rather than literature, and what message they spread.
Ayurveda Texts (Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Brihattrayi)Importance 3/5
Whose earlier treatise did Charaka revise, who completed the Charaka Samhita, and what does it cover? What surgical work does the Sushruta Samhita describe, and what title is Sushruta given? Which three texts together make up the Brihattrayi?
Aryabhata and VarahamihiraImportance 3/5UPSC 1997
What did Aryabhata propose in the Aryabhatiya about the motion of the earth, and why is it not a heliocentric theory? What else did he contribute to mathematics and astronomy? How does Aryabhata I differ from Aryabhata II? Remember Varahamihira's two works and the court he is linked with.
Vatsyayana's KamasutraImportance 1/5
Understand what the Kamasutra covers beyond its popular image, and how many books it has.
Patanjali's Yoga SutrasImportance 3/5
Who wrote the Yoga Sutras, and about when? Remember the number of sutras and the eight limbs of Ashtanga yoga in order. In which year was yoga added to the UNESCO list of intangible cultural heritage?
Pali Canon (Tripitaka) and Buddhaghosa's VisuddhimaggaImportance 3/5
What are the three Pitakas, and what does each contain? According to Theravada tradition, at which council, and under whose patronage, did the canon reach its final form? When and where was it first written down? Who was Buddhaghosa, what is the Visuddhimagga, and where did he write it?
Ashvaghosa and NagarjunaImportance 3/5UPSC 1998
What are Ashvaghosa's two major works, and why is he seen as a forerunner of Kalidasa? Which school does Nagarjuna's main text found, and what is its central idea?
Umasvati's TattvarthasutraImportance 2/5
Which two Jain sects accept the Tattvarthasutra? Know its author, its scope (the nature of reality, the universe and ethics) and the label it is often given. That label is popular usage, not a technical term.
Adi Shankaracharya's Works and MathasImportance 3/5
Understand what Advaita Vedanta means and how Shankara drew it from the Upanishads. Remember his main commentaries and the four mathas. Note that his authorship of some works, such as the Vivekachudamani, is disputed.
Bharata Muni's NatyashastraImportance 4/5
Bharata Muni's Natyashastra covers all the performing arts. Remember its main contents: chapters, the Karanas, the Rasa theory, musical instruments and stage construction. How many rasas does Bharata himself list, and which one was added later? Why is it called the foundation of the classical performing arts? Also know its 2025 UNESCO listing.
Kalidasa's WorksImportance 4/5UPSC 2020
Which of Kalidasa's works are plays, which are epics and which are lyrics? Remember the court he is linked with. Understand how Shakuntala became known to European readers: who first translated it into English and into German, and which German poet praised it?
Shudraka's MricchakatikaImportance 4/5UPSC 1997, 1998, 2003
Who wrote the Mricchakatika, and who are its two leading characters? Know its number of acts and the type of play it belongs to. Why is it noted for social realism?
Bharavi's KiratarjuniyaImportance 2/5
Kiratarjuniya is a Mahakavya. What story does it tell, and how many cantos does it have? Remember its author. His patron is uncertain, so do not rely on one name.
Harsha's PlaysImportance 3/5
Harsha was both a king and a playwright. What are his three plays? Understand where the plot of Nagananda comes from, and how that differs from the usual sources of Sanskrit plays.
Banabhatta's Harshacharita and KadambariImportance 3/5UPSC 1998
Which king did Banabhatta serve as court poet? Be clear about the difference between the Harshacharita (a biography) and the Kadambari (a romance). Understand why each is seen as a landmark in Sanskrit prose writing.
Vishakhadatta's MudrarakshasaImportance 4/5UPSC 1997, 1998, 2023
What is the Mudrarakshasa about? Remember its author and its main characters (Chanakya, Rakshasa and Chandragupta Maurya). Understand why it is useful for the study of the Mauryan period.
Mahendravikrama Pallava's Mattavilasa PrahasanaImportance 3/5
Mahendravikrama Pallava, a king, wrote this play. What kind of play is it, and whom does it mock? What does a royal author tell us about Sanskrit culture in the Pallava court?
Dandin and Anandavardhana: Prose and PoeticsImportance 2/5
Dandin wrote a prose narrative and a manual on poetics. What are their names? Understand Anandavardhana's Dhvani theory: what does it say is the soul of poetry?
Rajashekhara's WorksImportance 2/5
Rajashekhara served the Gurjara-Pratiharas. Remember his plays, his work on poetics (the Kavyamimamsa), the languages he used, and his wife Avantisundari.
Kalhana's RajataranginiImportance 4/5
About which region is the Rajatarangini, and what does its name mean? Why is it regarded as a systematic historical chronicle? Understand how Kalhana treated his sources. In which century did Kalhana write, and what period does his history cover?
Bilhana's VikramankadevacharitaImportance 3/5UPSC 1997, 2023
Whose life does the Vikramankadevacharita describe, and which dynasty did he belong to? Know Bilhana's regional origin and why the work is useful for Deccan history.
Somadeva's KathasaritsagaraImportance 2/5
What is the Kathasaritsagara, and what does its name mean? Which older story tradition does it retell? For which queen was it composed?
Al-Biruni's Kitab-ul-HindImportance 3/5
How did Al-Biruni come to India, and which language did he learn to study it? Know the subjects that the Kitab-ul-Hind covers, and the language in which he wrote.
Sangam Corpus (Ettuthokai, Pattuppattu, Tolkappiyam)Importance 4/5
Remember the number of poems and anthologies in the Sangam corpus. Distinguish Akam from Puram. What is the Tolkappiyam's role? Understand the five Tinai landscapes. Over what range of centuries is the corpus dated?
Silappadikaram and ManimekalaiImportance 4/5
Who wrote each epic? Remember the central characters of the two stories (Kovalan, Kannagi, Madhavi) and why the pair is called the twin epics. How does the religious outlook of one differ from that of the other?
Tiruttakkatevar's Civaka CintamaniImportance 2/5
Know the religious outlook of the Civaka Cintamani, what its story follows, and its place among the five Tamil epics.
Kambar's Kamba RamayanamImportance 2/5
In what ways does Kambar's Ramayana depart from Valmiki's, especially in how Ravana is shown?
Kavirajamarga and the Three Gems of KannadaImportance 3/5
Who is credited with the Kavirajamarga, and why is its authorship disputed? In whose court was it written? What kind of work is it? Who are the Three Gems of early Kannada, and which of them wrote the Vikramarjuna Vijaya and the Adipurana?
Andhra Mahabharatam and the KavitrayamImportance 3/5
Who began the Telugu Mahabharata? Which three poets are called the Kavitrayam, and what share of the work did each translate?
Krishnadevaraya's Amuktamalyada and the AshtadiggajasImportance 3/5
Which empire did Krishnadevaraya rule, and to which dynasty did he belong? In which century did he reign? What story does the Amuktamalyada tell, and who were the Ashtadiggajas?
Sarala Das's Odia MahabharataImportance 2/5
What title does Sarala Das hold in Odia literature? Which local religious elements did he add to his retelling of the Mahabharata?
Lalleshwari's VakhsImportance 2/5
Who was Lalleshwari (Lal Ded), and in which century did she live? What are her verses called, and what label is she given in Kashmiri literature? Understand why both Hindus and Muslims quote her.
Jayadeva's Gita GovindaImportance 4/5
What is the Gita Govinda about, how many cantos does it have, and in which region was it composed? Which dance and music traditions draw on it?
Vidyapati's PadavaliImportance 2/5
In which language did Vidyapati write, and on what theme? How are his poems still sung today?
Kabir's WorksImportance 3/5UPSC 2014
Who was Kabir, and when did he live? Remember his works (Bijak, Dohas, Sakhi and Sabad). Understand his Nirguna outlook and why he rejected both Hindu ritual and Islamic orthodoxy. Which sacred text includes some of his hymns?
Surdas and the AshtachhapImportance 3/5
Who was Surdas, and what is the Sur Sagar about? To which sect, founded by whom, is he linked, and what is the Ashtachhap?
Mirabai's PadasImportance 2/5
From which town and royal family did Mirabai come, and whom did she worship? Understand what her songs and her life stand for in social terms.
Tulsidas's WorksImportance 3/5
What are Tulsidas's main works? Remember the language of the Ramcharitmanas, the city where he began it, and the other places where he worked on it.
Sankardev's Works (Borgeet, Ankiya Nat, Sattras)Importance 4/5
Which movement did Sankardev found in Assam? Distinguish Borgeet from Ankiya Nat. What are the Sattras, and how do they link to Sattriya dance? Remember the Kirtana Ghosa.
Dnyaneshwar's WorksImportance 3/5
The Dnyaneshwari comments on which text, and in which language? Know the Amritanubhava, the age at which he wrote, and his place in the Warkari tradition.
Eknath and Tukaram in the Warkari TraditionImportance 3/5
Where do Dnyaneshwar, Eknath and Tukaram stand in the order of the Warkari line? Remember Tukaram's Abhangas and the deity they address. Know Eknath's works and his stand on caste.
Narsinh Mehta's PoetryImportance 2/5
Which title does Narsinh Mehta hold in Gujarati literature? Which of his poems did Gandhi make famous?
Sarangadeva's Sangita RatnakaraImportance 3/5
Which dynasty's court produced the Sangita Ratnakara? Understand why it is described as the last treatise to cover both what became Hindustani and Carnatic music.
Purandara Dasa and Carnatic Music TeachingImportance 3/5
Why is Purandara Dasa called the Father of Carnatic Music? Know the teaching sequence he set (Svaravali, Alankaras and Gitams) and the Haridasa tradition he belonged to.
Tyagaraja's KritisImportance 3/5UPSC 2010
Remember the Pancharatna Kritis, the language of his compositions and his devotion to Rama. Where is his annual Aradhana held? Who make up the Carnatic Trinity?
Amir Khusrau's WorksImportance 3/5UPSC 1999
What are the Khamsa, the Nuh Siphir and the Tughlaqnama? Know the period in which Khusrau lived and why he is seen as a forerunner of Urdu. Many musical inventions are credited to him by tradition. Are these claims proven?
Malik Muhammad Jayasi's PadmavatImportance 2/5
What story does the Padmavat tell? Understand its two levels of reading, literal and allegorical, and its link with the Sufi masnavi form.
Abul Fazl's Akbarnama and Ain-i-AkbariImportance 3/5
How do the Akbarnama and the Ain-i-Akbari differ in what they record? Which poet at Akbar's court was Abul Fazl's brother?
Mirza GhalibImportance 2/5
Know Ghalib's period, the character of his ghazals, and his main works (the Diwan and his letters). Which major uprising did he witness, and in which year?
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's WorksImportance 4/5UPSC 1996, 1999, 2008
In which novel does Vande Mataram appear, and how did it become the national song? Know Bankim's other major works, including Durgeshnandini, and his standing in Bengali fiction.
Rabindranath Tagore's WorksImportance 3/5UPSC 1999
For which work did Tagore receive the Nobel Prize in 1913? Know the range of his writing and what Rabindra Sangeet is. Which two national anthems did he compose, and for which countries?
