Sangam Age

1.Sangam Literature

• The Three Sangams (Muchchangam)Importance 3/5
  Where did each of the three Sangams meet, and who patronised them? Remember what survives of the work of each, and who founded the third. Do these accounts come from records of the time, or from Tamil legends?
• Corpus of Sangam Literature and TolkappiyamImportance 4/5
  What works and collections make up the corpus of Sangam literature? Which of them do scholars treat as Sangam literature proper, and which are generally dated later? Remember who wrote Tolkappiyam and what kind of work it is. Understand why a book of grammar can still tell us about the politics, society and economy of its time.
• Ettutogai and Pattuppattu (Aham and Puram)Importance 3/5
  Know what the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Idylls are, with a few key works in each (Purananooru, Padirruppattu, Pattinappalai, Maduraikkanji). How do Aham and Puram differ in theme?
• Pathinenkilkanakku and TirukkuralImportance 3/5
  How many works does Pathinenkilkanakku hold, and what do they mostly deal with? Remember which of them is the best known, and who wrote it.
• The Two Epics: Silappathigaram and ManimegalaiImportance 4/5
  Who wrote each of the two epics? Remember the author-work pairs. Understand how Silappathigaram links to Senguttuvan, Kannagi and Kovalan, and why both epics are useful for studying Sangam polity and society. Are they dated to the Sangam period itself, or later?

2.Other Sources

• Greek and Roman Writers on South IndiaImportance 2/5
  Remember the classical writers who mention South India (Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy). What aspect of South India do they record?
• Asokan and Kharavela Inscriptions on Tamil KingdomsImportance 3/5UPSC 1998
  Which Tamil kingdoms do Asokan inscriptions mention, and how do they place them in relation to the Mauryan empire? Also remember Kharavela of Kalinga and his Hathigumpha inscription, and what it says about the Tamil kingdoms.
• Excavated Sites (Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal)Importance 3/5
  Remember these three excavated sites. What do the finds at such places tell us about the overseas trade of the Tamils?

3.Period of Sangam Literature

• Gajabahu SynchronismImportance 3/5
  Which Chera king is matched with Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka? This is the king of the 2nd century A.D., not the much later Gajabahu II. Which text gives this link, and what do the Sri Lankan chronicles (Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa) tell us about Gajabahu? Why does a known meeting of two rulers help in dating a period? Scholars debate this synchronism.
• Probable Date of the Sangam Age and Its EvidenceImportance 3/5
  What span of time is accepted as the most probable date of the Sangam age? Understand the literary, archaeological and numismatic evidence behind it, including Roman coins of the first century A.D. Scholars still dispute the chronology, so treat the span as probable and not certain.

4.Political History

• Three Dynasties of the Sangam Age and Sources for Their HistoryImportance 2/5
  Which three dynasties ruled the Tamil country in this age? Know what their political history is mainly traced from.

5.Cheras

• Chera Kingdom: Region, Capital, Ports and SourcesImportance 3/5
  Remember the region the Cheras ruled, their capital, their two seaports and the flower they wore as a garland. Which inscription and which literary work give information on Chera kings? Also know their three famous rulers.
• Cheran Senguttuvan and the Pattini CultImportance 3/5UPSC 2026
  Remember Senguttuvan's period and his family link to a famous author. Understand his expedition to the Himalayas and why he brought a stone from there. What is the Pattini cult, and who was worshipped in it? Which Sri Lankan king attended the consecration, and how does his presence help to date Senguttuvan?

6.Cholas

• Chola Kingdom: Extent and CapitalsImportance 2/5
  Know the area the Sangam Cholas ruled. Which city was their first capital, and where did it move later?
• Karikala's Wars and Public WorksImportance 4/5
  Which are Karikala's two famous battles, and what was the result of each? For the Battle of Venni, remember who stood in the confederacy against him. Know which poem describes his life and conquests. Be clear about his works for farming and irrigation, including Kallanai.

7.Pandyas

• Pandya Kingdom and Its Early and Last KingsImportance 2/5
  Remember the region and capital of the Pandyas. Who were their earliest kings, and who was the last famous king of the age? Which invasion started their decline?
• The Two NeduncheliyansImportance 3/5UPSC 2026
  There were two Pandya kings named Neduncheliyan. How can you tell them apart by their titles and deeds, including the one linked to Kovalan's execution? Remember the poets who praised the second one. Who wrote the poem Maduraikkanji, and what does it describe, including the port of Korkai?

8.Minor Chieftains

• Kadai Yelu VallalgalImportance 2/5
  Who were the seven chieftains called Kadai Yelu Vallalgal? Understand why they were given this name. How could they be under the three great dynasties and still be powerful in their own regions?

9.Sangam Polity

• Hereditary Monarchy and the AvaiImportance 2/5
  What was the form of government? Remember whose advice the king took, and what the avai was.
• Royal Titles and Emblems of the Three DynastiesImportance 3/5
  Which royal emblem (carp, tiger, bow) belonged to each dynasty? Which titles belonged to the Cheras, which to the Cholas and which to the Pandyas?
• Five Councils of OfficialsImportance 3/5
  The king was helped by five councils of officials. Remember each council by its Tamil name (amaichar, anthanar, senapathi, thuthar, orrar) and the role it played.
• Army, Kodimaram and Security of RoadsImportance 1/5
  Each ruler kept a regular army. What was a Kodimaram? Know how roads were kept safe and why.
• Sources of State IncomeImportance 2/5
  Which was the chief source of income for the state? Remember the other sources, including customs and war booty. What does the Pattinappalai say about customs officials at Puhar?

10.Sangam Society

• Five-Fold Division of Land (Tinai)Importance 4/5
  What are the five tinai landscapes and their terrain? For each, remember the chief deity and the chief occupation. This division is described in Tolkappiyam.
• Four Castes in TolkappiyamImportance 3/5
  Which four groups does Tolkappiyam mention? Remember the role of each in society.
• Tribal Groups in Sangam SocietyImportance 1/5
  Be aware of the tribal groups found in Sangam society (Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar and others), and of the ancient primitive tribes such as the Thodas and Irulas.

11.Religion

• Deities of the Sangam AgeImportance 3/5
  Which deity was most widely worshipped in this age? Know his two names and the six abodes in his honour. Also remember the other gods worshipped (Mayon, Vendan, Varunan, Korravai).
• Hero Stone (Nadu Kal) WorshipImportance 3/5
  Why was a hero stone put up? Understand why the inscribed hero stones found in many places are useful as evidence, and what the practice shows about the worship of the dead.

12.Position of Women

• Women Poets of the Sangam AgeImportance 3/5
  Remember the women poets of the age (Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, Kakkaipadiniyar) and that they added to Tamil literature.
• Social Position of WomenImportance 2/5
  What was considered the highest virtue for women? Understand the favourable side (love marriage, choice of partner) and the unfavourable side (the life of widows, the practice of sati in the higher strata).

13.Fine Arts

• Patronage of Poets and Singing BardsImportance 2/5
  Who gave liberal gifts to poets? Know the singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar and what they were good at.
• Music, Dance and KoothuImportance 2/5
  Remember the musical instruments mentioned (Yazh and drums), the dancers called Kanigaiyar, and Koothu as a popular entertainment.

14.Economy of the Sangam Age

• Agriculture and CropsImportance 2/5
  Which was the chief occupation, and which crop was most common? Know the other crops, the produce the Chera country was famous for, and the chief crop of the Chola and Pandya lands.
• Handicrafts and TextilesImportance 2/5
  Remember the main handicrafts of the age. Which town's cotton cloth was in demand in the western world, and how did the poems praise the fineness of cloth?
• Internal TradeImportance 1/5
  How did merchants carry goods from place to place? What was the basis of exchange in internal trade?
• Foreign Trade and PortsImportance 4/5UPSC 2023
  Understand how Roman trade replaced Greek trade. Which port became the main emporium of foreign trade? Remember the other ports (Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu, Marakkanam). Which foreign work gives the most valuable information on this trade?
• Roman Coins in Tamil NaduImportance 3/5
  Coins of which Roman emperors have been found? Understand what the finds show about the extent of trade and about Roman traders in the Tamil country, and how coins also help in dating the age.
• Exports and ImportsImportance 3/5UPSC 1995
  What were the main exports and what were the main imports? Be careful not to mix the two lists.

15.End of the Sangam Age

• Decline of the Sangam Age and the KalabhrasImportance 3/5
  When did the age begin to decline? Remember who then occupied the Tamil country, for roughly how long, and which religions became prominent. Which powers drove them out? Link this to the decline of Pandya rule.

1. 1.

   Consider the following statements regarding Tolkappiyam:
   1. It was authored by Tolkappiyar and is a work on Tamil grammar.
   2. Among the works of Tamil literature of the Sangam period, Ettutogai is the earliest.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

   1. A1 only
   2. B2 only
   3. CBoth 1 and 2
   4. DNeither 1 nor 2
2. 2.

   With reference to the five-fold division of land (tinai) described in Tolkappiyam, consider the following statements:
   1. The chief deity of Kurinji was Murugan and its chief occupation was hunting and honey collection.
   2. The chief deity of Marudam was Varunan.
   3. The chief occupation of Neydal was fishing and salt manufacturing.
   4. The chief deity of Palai was Indira.
   How many of the above statements are correct?

   1. AOnly one
   2. BOnly two
   3. COnly three
   4. DAll four
3. 3.

   Match List I (Tamil work) with List II (author):

   List I (Work)	List II (Author)
   A. Silappathigaram	1. Sittalai Sattanar
   B. Manimegalai	2. Elango Adigal
   C. Tirukkural	3. Mangudi Maruthanar
   D. Maduraikkanji	4. Thiruvalluvar

   Select the correct answer using the code given below:

   1. AA-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
   2. BA-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
   3. CA-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
   4. DA-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
4. 4.

   Consider the following pairs:

   Sangam-age port	Kingdom in whose territory it lay
   1. Tondi	Cheras
   2. Puhar	Pandyas
   3. Korkai	Pandyas

   Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

   1. A1 and 2 only
   2. B2 and 3 only
   3. C1 and 3 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
5. 5.

   With reference to the Chola king Karikala, consider the following statements:
   1. In the Battle of Venni, he defeated a confederacy that included the Cheras and the Pandyas.
   2. In the Battle of Vahaipparandalai, nine enemy chieftains submitted before him.
   3. He built Kallanai across the river Vaigai.
   Which of the statements given above are correct?

   1. A1 and 2 only
   2. B2 and 3 only
   3. C1 and 3 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
6. 6.

   Consider the following statements about Sangam literature:
   1. Aingurunooru and Purananooru are among the works of the Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies).
   2. Pattinappalai and Maduraikkanji are among the works of the Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls).
   3. Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works, mostly dealing with ethics and morals.
   4. In the division of Ettutogai and Pattuppattu into two main groups, Aham stands for valour and Puram for love.
   How many of the above statements are correct?

   1. AOnly one
   2. BOnly two
   3. COnly three
   4. DAll four
7. 7.

   Consider the following statements:
   Statement-I: In the Sangam age, Roman trade assumed importance after the ascendancy of the Roman Empire.
   Statement-II: Internal trade in the Sangam age was mostly based on the barter system.
   Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

   1. ABoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I
   2. BBoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
   3. CStatement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
   4. DStatement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
8. 8.

   Consider the following statements regarding the Sangam dynasties:
   1. The carp was the royal emblem of the Pandyas.
   2. The tiger was the royal emblem of the Cholas.
   3. Killi and Valavan were titles assumed by the Chola kings.
   Which of the statements given above are correct?

   1. A1 and 2 only
   2. B2 and 3 only
   3. C1 and 3 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
9. 9.

   The Kadai Yelu Vallalgal were seven chieftains of the Sangam age known for their philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets. Which one of the following was NOT among them?

   1. APari
   2. BKarikala
   3. CNalli
   4. DAdiyaman
10. 10.

    With reference to the end of the Sangam age, consider the following statements:
    1. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries.
    2. Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during the Kalabhra period.
    3. The Pallavas in southern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas in northern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out.
    How many of the above statements are correct?

    1. AOnly one
    2. BOnly two
    3. CAll three
    4. DNone
11. 11.

    Consider the following pairs:

    Term of the Sangam age	Meaning
    1. Kanigaiyar	Dancers
    2. Viraliyar	Singing bards
    3. Vanigar	Agriculturists

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    1. A1 and 2 only
    2. B2 and 3 only
    3. C1 and 3 only
    4. D1, 2 and 3
12. 12.

    Consider the following statements regarding the foreign trade of the Sangam age:
    1. Cotton fabrics and spices were among the main imports.
    2. Pearls and ivory products were among the main imports.
    3. Gold and horses were the chief exports.
    4. Sweet wine was among the chief imports.
    How many of the above statements are correct?

    1. AOnly one
    2. BOnly two
    3. COnly three
    4. DAll four
13. 13.

    The Hathigumpha inscription, which also mentions the Tamil kingdoms, was issued by which one of the following rulers?

    1. ARudradaman
    2. BGautamiputra Satakarni
    3. CKharavela of Kalinga
    4. DSamudragupta
14. 14.

    With reference to Cheran Senguttuvan, consider the following statements:
    1. He introduced the Pattini cult, the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife, in Tamil Nadu.
    2. The stone for making the idol of Kannagi was brought by him after his Himalayan expedition.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    1. A1 only
    2. B2 only
    3. CBoth 1 and 2
    4. DNeither 1 nor 2
15. 15.

    Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the country of which Sangam-age dynasty?

    1. ACholas
    2. BPandyas
    3. CPallavas
    4. DCheras

1. 1.

   UPSC 1995

   The term Yavanapriya, mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts, denoted

   1. Aa fine variety of Indian muslin
   2. Bivory
   3. Cdamsels sent to the Greek court for dance performance
   4. Dpepper
2. 2.

   UPSC 2026

   Which of the following pairs of the king and his dynasty in early historical Tamilakam is/are not correctly matched ?
   1. Senguttuvan : Chera
   2. Udiyanjeral : Chola
   3. Nedunjeliyan : Pandya
   Select the answer using the code given below :

   1. A1 and 2
   2. B2 only
   3. C1 and 3
   4. D3 only
3. 3.

   UPSC 2023

   With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar and Muchiri were well known as

   1. Acapital cities
   2. Bports
   3. Ccentres of iron-and-steel making
   4. Dshrines of Jain Tirthankaras
4. 4.

   UPSC 1998

   The Asokan major rock edicts which tell us about the Sangam Kingdom include rock edicts

   1. AI and X
   2. BI and XI
   3. CII and XIII
   4. DII and XIV