Harshavardhana (606 – 647 A.D.)

1.Sources for the Study of Harsha

• Literary Sources for Harsha's ReignImportance 4/5UPSC 1999
  Who were the two chief sources for Harsha's reign, and what was each author's role? Harsha's own three plays are a further source. Understand why the political disorder after the Guptas formed the setting for his rise.
• Inscriptions of Harsha (Madhuben, Sonpat, Banskhera)Importance 3/5
  Three inscriptions help in studying Harsha. Which two are used to work out the chronology? What does the Banskhera inscription carry?

2.Early Life of Harsha

• Pushyabhuti Dynasty and PrabhakaravardhanaImportance 3/5UPSC 2021
  Who founded the family, and what was its position under the Guptas? Remember the name the family called itself and what let it become independent. Who was its first important king, where was his capital, and what titles did he take?
• Crisis After Prabhakaravardhana (Rajyasri, Grihavarman, Sasanka)Importance 2/5
  What happened to Rajyasri's husband Grihavarman, and which two rulers were behind it? Understand how Rajyavardhana answered this and how his reign ended. Remember the kingdom of each ruler involved.
• Harsha's Accession and the Rescue of RajyasriImportance 2/5
  Where did Harsha take the throne? Remember the year of his accession and how long he ruled. What were his first two responsibilities, and what was happening to his sister when he found her?

3.Harsha's Military Conquests

• Harsha's First Expedition and the CapitalImportance 4/5
  Whom did Harsha drive out of Kanauj in his first expedition? Distinguish his original capital from his new one. Understand how this move changed his standing in north India.
• Campaign Against ValabhiImportance 3/5UPSC 2021
  Who ruled Valabhi at the time, and what was his position after the fight with Harsha?
• War with Pulakesin II and the Aihole InscriptionImportance 5/5UPSC 2003
  Harsha marched south to extend his kingdom beyond the Narmada. Who won? Remember the two sources that record the campaign, and the title the victor took afterwards.
• Sind, Nepal, Kashmir, Kamarupa and KalingaImportance 3/5
  What was Harsha's relation with each of Sind, Nepal, Kashmir and Kalinga? Which campaign was his last, and about which is success doubtful? Also be clear about the nature of his relations with Bhaskaravarman of Assam (Kamarupa).
• Extent of Harsha's Empire and Sphere of InfluenceImportance 2/5
  Which regions were under Harsha's direct control? Know which peripheral states accepted his overlordship. Note that his hold over Sind is uncertain.

4.Harsha and Buddhism

• Changes in Harsha's FaithImportance 4/5UPSC 2001, 2004
  What was Harsha's faith in his early life, and how did it change later? Understand what part Hiuen Tsang is credited with, and which school of Buddhism Harsha finally favoured.
• Harsha's Measures in Support of BuddhismImportance 2/5
  What steps did Harsha take for Buddhism? Know his rules on animal food and killing, the stupas, the rest houses for travellers, the monasteries at sacred places, and the meetings of monks.

5.Kanauj Assembly

• Purpose and Participants of the Kanauj AssemblyImportance 4/5
  Whom did the Kanauj Assembly honour, and when in Harsha's reign was it held? Learn which groups attended, including scholars from Nalanda, and roughly how many came from each. Were only followers of Mahayana invited?
• Proceedings and Outcome of the Kanauj AssemblyImportance 2/5
  How long did the assembly last, and what did Hiuen Tsang argue at it? Was it peaceful? Understand the violence that broke out and what threatened Harsha. How was Hiuen Tsang treated on the final day?

6.Allahabad Conference

• Allahabad (Prayag) Conference and Harsha's CharityImportance 3/5UPSC 2001
  How often did Harsha hold this conference, and to whom did he give gifts? Know how far Hiuen Tsang says the giving went. Note that his report is taken as an admiring exaggeration. Distinguish this regular gathering from the Kanauj Assembly.

7.Harsha's Administration

• Model of Administration and the King's ConductImportance 2/5
  On whose pattern was Harsha's administration organised? Remember Hiuen Tsang's picture of the king himself: his justice, his attention to duty and his tours of inspection.
• Land Tax and Burden on the PeopleImportance 3/5
  Remember the share of the produce collected as land tax. How heavy were taxation and forced labour in general?
• Punishments and Hiuen Tsang's View of TrialsImportance 3/5UPSC 2013
  Did the harsh punishments of earlier times continue under Harsha? What did Hiuen Tsang think of the trials of the period?
• Harsha's ArmyImportance 2/5
  The army had four traditional divisions. Remember what they were, and the rough strength of the cavalry and the elephant forces.
• Public Records and the ArchiveImportance 4/5
  What was the archive of Harsha's period called, and who controlled it? What kinds of events did it record? Understand why keeping public records is counted as the main feature of Harsha's administration.

8.Society and Economy Under Harsha

• Varna Order and Caste in Harsha's TimeImportance 3/5
  What was the role of each of the four varnas? Know what privilege kings gave Brahmins, and what work Hiuen Tsang says Sudras did. Were there sub-castes as well, and were they few or many?
• Position of WomenImportance 3/5
  Understand the position of women through four practices: the swayamvara, the remarriage of widows, dowry and sati. What was the state of each in this period? Was widow remarriage allowed, and among which castes was the rule strictest?
• Disposal of the DeadImportance 1/5
  Which three ways of disposing of the dead did Hiuen Tsang record?
• State of Trade and Its EvidenceImportance 3/5
  How did trade in Harsha's time compare with the Gupta period? Understand what trade centres, coins and merchant guilds show about it.
• Trade, Production and the Village EconomyImportance 4/5UPSC 2013, 2020
  Understand how the state of trade affected handicrafts and agriculture. What kind of village economy emerged, and how did the economy as a whole compare with the Gupta period?

9.Cultural Progress

• Art and Architecture of Harsha's PeriodImportance 3/5
  How much art and architecture survives from this period, and in what style? Remember the many-storeyed monastery at Nalanda and the Lakshmana brick temple at Sirpur, which is assigned to this period. What does Hiuen Tsang say about a copper statue of the Buddha?
• Banabhatta and His WorksImportance 4/5
  Be clear about Banabhatta's role at Harsha's court, and remember the two works he wrote.
• Other Scholars at Harsha's CourtImportance 2/5
  Besides Bana, Matanga Divakara and Bhartrihari are also placed at the court. What was Bhartrihari known as?
• Harsha as PlaywrightImportance 4/5
  Which three plays did Harsha himself write? Be sure of the titles, and keep them apart from the works of Bana.

10.Nalanda University

• Valabhi and Nalanda as Centres of LearningImportance 2/5
  Chinese travellers named two educational centres as the most famous. Distinguish them by the Buddhist school each belonged to.
• Founding, Meaning and Patronage of NalandaImportance 4/5
  Who founded Nalanda, and in which period? What does the name mean (a traditional meaning)? Learn who patronised it after the founder, how Harsha supported it, and how Hiuen Tsang was connected with it.
• Renowned Teachers of NalandaImportance 4/5
  What were its professors called? Which renowned teachers are associated with Nalanda? Which of them came from Kanchipuram and rose to lead the university?
• Residential Life and Funding of NalandaImportance 2/5
  Was Nalanda residential, and did students pay for teaching, board and lodging? Know how it was funded: how many villages supplied its income and who endowed them.
• Subjects Taught and Medium of InstructionImportance 3/5
  Nalanda was a Mahayana university, yet other religious and philosophical systems were taught. Which ones? Remember the general subjects in its syllabus and the language of teaching.
• Admission and Methods of TeachingImportance 2/5
  How were students admitted, and how many passed the test? Understand how discipline was kept, whether teaching relied more on lectures or discussion, and where the students came from.
• Nalanda Facilities, I-tsing's Account and UNESCO StatusImportance 3/5
  What facilities did Nalanda have (classrooms, hostel, observatory, library)? Remember I-tsing's figure for the number of students, and keep it apart from other pilgrims' figures. What is the present status of the Nalanda site with UNESCO, and since when?

1. 1.

   Consider the following statements regarding Harsha's campaign against the Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II:
   1. Harsha marched south with the ambition of extending his kingdom beyond the Narmada river.
   2. Hiuen Tsang's account records a victory for Harsha in this campaign.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

   1. A1 only
   2. B2 only
   3. CBoth 1 and 2
   4. DNeither 1 nor 2
2. 2.

   With reference to Harsha's first expedition, consider the following statements:
   1. He drove Sasanka out of Kanauj.
   2. He made Kanauj his new capital.
   3. He drove Devagupta of Malwa out of Kanauj.
   How many of the above statements are correct?

   1. AOnly one
   2. BOnly two
   3. CAll three
   4. DNone
3. 3.

   Consider the following statements regarding the religious faith of Harsha:
   1. In his early life he was a devout Saiva.
   2. Hiuen Tsang converted him to Hinayana Buddhism.
   3. He became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist before he was converted to Mahayana Buddhism.
   Which of the statements given above are correct?

   1. A1 and 2 only
   2. B2 and 3 only
   3. C1 and 3 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
4. 4.

   Consider the following statements:
   Statement-I: Harsha organised a religious assembly at Kanauj to honour the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang.
   Statement-II: Only representatives of Mahayana Buddhism were invited to the Kanauj Assembly.
   Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

   1. ABoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I
   2. BBoth Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
   3. CStatement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
   4. DStatement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
5. 5.

   With reference to the keeping of public records in Harsha's administration, consider the following statements:
   1. The archive of the period was known as nilopitu.
   2. The archive was under the control of special officers.
   3. Both good and bad events of his time were recorded in it.
   4. The maintenance of public records was the salient feature of his administration.
   How many of the above statements are correct?

   1. AOnly one
   2. BOnly two
   3. COnly three
   4. DAll four
6. 6.

   Consider the following pairs:

   Work	Author
   1. Harshacharita	Banabhatta
   2. Nagananda	Harsha
   3. Priyadarsika	Banabhatta

   Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

   1. A1 and 2 only
   2. B2 and 3 only
   3. C1 and 3 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
7. 7.

   In the administration of Harsha, what share of the produce was collected as land tax?

   1. AOne-fourth
   2. BOne-tenth
   3. COne-sixth
   4. DOne-third
8. 8.

   With reference to the sources for the study of Harsha, consider the following statements:
   1. Bana, the court poet of Harsha, wrote the Harshacharita.
   2. Hiuen Tsang was the court poet of Harsha.
   3. The dramas written by Harsha himself are of no use in reconstructing his reign.
   How many of the above statements are correct?

   1. AOnly one
   2. BOnly two
   3. CAll three
   4. DNone
9. 9.

   Match List I with List II:

   List I (Ruler)	List II (Kingdom or dynasty)
   A. Dhruvasena II	1. Malwa
   B. Devagupta	2. Valabhi
   C. Sasanka	3. Bengal
   D. Grihavarman	4. Maukhari

   Select the correct answer using the code given below:

   1. AA-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
   2. BA-2, B-3, C-1, D-4
   3. CA-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
   4. DA-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
10. 10.

    With reference to the Allahabad (Prayag) conference of Harsha's reign, which one of the following is correct?

    1. AIt was held only once, to honour Hiuen Tsang
    2. BIt was convened once in five years, with gifts to all religious sects
    3. CIt was convened once in five years, with gifts only to Buddhist monks
    4. DIt was convened once in ten years, with gifts to all religious sects
11. 11.

    Consider the following statements regarding Nalanda University:
    1. It was founded by Harsha and later patronised by the Gupta rulers.
    2. Its professors were called panditas.
    3. Dharmapala, a native of Kanchipuram, became its head.
    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    1. A1 and 2 only
    2. B2 and 3 only
    3. C1 and 3 only
    4. D1, 2 and 3
12. 12.

    Harsha's last military campaign was directed against which one of the following kingdoms?

    1. AKashmir
    2. BValabhi
    3. CSind
    4. DKalinga
13. 13.

    With reference to the administration of Harsha as seen in the account of Hiuen Tsang, consider the following statements:
    1. The trials of the period were condemned as barbarous and superstitious.
    2. Taxation was light and forced labour was rare.
    3. The cruel punishments of the Mauryan period were abolished.
    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    1. A1 and 2 only
    2. B2 and 3 only
    3. C1 and 3 only
    4. D1, 2 and 3
14. 14.

    With reference to the position of women in Harsha's time, consider the following statements:
    1. The institution of swayamvara had become more widespread.
    2. Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly among the higher castes.
    3. The system of dowry had become common.
    4. The practice of sati had disappeared.
    How many of the above statements are correct?

    1. AOnly one
    2. BOnly two
    3. COnly three
    4. DAll four
15. 15.

    Consider the following pairs:

    Place	Feature
    1. Sirpur	Brick temple of Lakshmana assigned to Harsha's period
    2. Valabhi	Mahayana university
    3. Nalanda	Mahayana university

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    1. A1 and 2 only
    2. B2 and 3 only
    3. C1 and 3 only
    4. D1, 2 and 3

1. 1.

   UPSC 2021

   From the decline of Guptas until the rise of Harshavardhana in the early seventh century, which of the following kingdoms were holding power in Northern India?
   1. The Guptas of Magadha
   2. The Paramaras of Malwa
   3. The Pushyabhutis of Thanesar
   4. The Maukharis of Kanauj
   5. The Yadavas of Devagiri
   6. The Maitrakas of Valabhi
   Select the correct answer using the code given below.

   1. A1, 2 and 5
   2. B1, 3, 4 and 6
   3. C2, 3 and 4
   4. D5 and 6
2. 2.

   UPSC 1999

   The following persons came to India at one time or another:
   I. Fa-Hien
   II. I-Tsing
   III. Megasthenes
   IV. Hieun-Tsang The correct chronological sequence of their visits is:

   1. AIII, I, II, IV
   2. BIII, I, IV, II
   3. CI, III, II, IV
   4. DI, III, IV, II
3. 3.

   UPSC 2020

   Which of the following phrases defines the nature of the ‘Hundi’ generally referred to in the sources of the post-Harsha period ?

   1. AAn advisory issued by the king to his subordinates
   2. BA diary to be maintained for daily accounts
   3. CA bill of exchange
   4. DAn order from the feudal lord to his subordinates
4. 4.

   UPSC 2013

   The Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) who visited India recorded the general conditions and culture of India at that time. In this context, which of the following statements is/are correct?
   1. The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery.
   2. As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water and poison were the instruments for determining the innocence or guilt of a person.
   3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.
   Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

   1. A1 only
   2. B2 and 3 only
   3. C1 and 3 only
   4. D1, 2 and 3
5. 5.

   UPSC 2004

   Consider the following statements:
   1. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien attended the fourth Great Buddhist Council held by Kanishka.
   2. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang met Harsha and found him to be antagonistic to Buddhism.
   Which of these statements given above is/are correct?

   1. A1 only
   2. B2 only
   3. CBoth 1 and 2
   4. DNeither 1 nor 2
6. 6.

   UPSC 2003

   Emperor Harsha’s southward march was stopped on the Narmada River by

   1. APulakesin-I
   2. BPulakesin-II
   3. CVikramaditya-I
   4. DVikramaditya-II
7. 7.

   UPSC 2001

   Assertion (A): Harshavardhana convened the Prayag Assembly. Reason (R): He wanted to popularise only the Mahayana form of Buddhism.

   1. ABoth A and R are individually true, and R is the correct explanation of A
   2. BBoth A and R are individually true, but R is NOT a correct explanation of A
   3. CA is true, but R is false
   4. DA is false, but R is true